Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Diagnosis & Treatment

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Alghamdi, W. A., Subki, A. H., Khatib, H. A., Butt, N. S., Alghamdi, R. A., Alsallum, M. S., Alharbi, A. A., Almatrafi, M. N., Alobisi, A. A., Al-Zaben, F., & Koenig, H. G. (2022). Body Dysmorphic Disorder Symptoms: Prevalence and Risk Factors in an Arab Middle Eastern Population. International journal of general medicine, 15, 2905-2912. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJGM.S329942

Baceviciene, M., Jankauskiene, R., & Trinkuniene, L. (2022). Associations between Self-Objectification and Lifestyle Habits in a Large Sample of Adolescents. Children (Basel, Switzerland), 9(7), 1022. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9071022

Chen, X., Chen, G., Wang, J., & Huang, J. (2022). Reliability and Validity of the Self-Report Chinese Version of the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale Modified for Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD-YBOCS) in Patients Undergoing Plastic Surgery. Aesthetic plastic surgery, 46(4), 2023-2030. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00266-022-02784-z

Hosseini, S. A., & Padhy, R. K. (2023). Body Image Distortion. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing.

Hostiuc, S., Isailă, O. M., Rusu, M. C., & Negoi, I. (2022). Ethical Challenges Regarding Cosmetic Surgery in Patients with Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland), 10(7), 1345. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare10071345

Linde, J., Luoma, J. B., Rück, C., Ramnerö, J., & Lundgren, T. (2023). Acceptance and Compassion-Based Therapy Targeting Shame in Body Dysmorphic Disorder: A Multiple Baseline Study. Behavior modification, 47(3), 693-718. https://doi.org/10.1177/01454455221129989

Linde, J., Luoma, J. B., Rück, C., Ramnerö, J., & Lundgren, T. (2023). Acceptance and Compassion-Based Therapy Targeting Shame in Body Dysmorphic Disorder: A Multiple Baseline Study. Behavior modification, 47(3), 693-718. https://doi.org/10.1177/01454455221129989

Nicewicz, H. R., & Boutrouille, J. F. (2022). Body Dysmorphic Disorder. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing.

Racz, J. I., Mathieu, S. L., McKenzie, M. L., & Farrell, L. J. (2023). Paediatric Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Comorbid Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Clinical Expression and Treatment Response. Child psychiatry and human development, 54(4), 1005-1014. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-022-01314-x

Rautio, D., Gumpert, M., Jassi, A., Krebs, G., Flygare, O., Andrén, P., Monzani, B., Peile, L., Jansson-Fröjmark, M., Lundgren, T., Hillborg, M., Silverberg-Mörse, M., Clark, B., Fernández de la Cruz, L., & Mataix-Cols, D. (2022). Effectiveness of Multimodal Treatment for Young People With Body Dysmorphic Disorder in Two Specialist Clinics. Behavior therapy, 53(5), 1037-1049. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2022.04.010

Schliebener, M., Kraft, L., & Dufner, M. (2023). An EMG-based approach toward the assessment of implicit self-esteem. Acta psychologica, 234, 103868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103868

Sindi, S. A., Alghamdi, M. K., Sindi, E. E., Bondagji, M. F., Baashar, D. S., Malibary, J. A., & Alkot, M. M. (2023). The Prevalence and Characteristics of Body Dysmorphic Disorder Among Adults in Makkah City, Saudi Arabia. A Cross-Sectional Study. Cureus, 15(2), e35316. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.35316

Sobouti, F., Elyasi, F., Navaei, R. A., Rayatnia, F., Kalantari, N. R., Dadgar, S., & Rakhshan, V. (2023). Associations between body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) with the dental health component of the index of orthodontic treatment need (IOTN-DHC) and other BDD risk factors in orthodontic patients: A preliminary study. Korean journal of orthodontics, 53(1), 3-15. https://doi.org/10.4041/kjod22.155

Peer-Reviewed Journal Article References:
Baker, J. H., Higgins Neyland, M. K., Thornton, L. M., Runfola, C. D., Larsson, H., Lichtenstein, P., & Bulik, C. (2019). Body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys. Developmental Psychology, 55(7), 1566–1578.

Bucchianeri, M. M., Fernandes, N., Loth, K., Hannan, P. J., Eisenberg, M. E., & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2016). Body dissatisfaction: Do associations with disordered eating and psychological well-being differ across race/ethnicity in adolescent girls and boys? Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 22(1), 137–146.

Cheng, H.-L., & Mallinckrodt, B. (2009). Parental bonds, anxious attachment, media internalization, and body image dissatisfaction: Exploring a mediation model. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56(3), 365–375.

Combs, D. R., & Tiegreen, J. (2007). The use of behavioral experiments to modify delusions and paranoia: Clinical guidelines and recommendations. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 3(1), 30–37.

Crow, S., Eisenberg, M. E., Story, M., & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2008). Are body dissatisfaction, eating disturbance, and body mass index predictors of suicidal behavior in adolescents? A longitudinal study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(5), 887–892.

Duschek, S., Werner, N. S., Reyes del Paso, G. A., & Schandry, R. (2015). The contributions of interoceptive awareness to cognitive and affective facets of body experience. Journal of Individual Differences, 36(2), 110–118.

Ferguson, C. J. (2018). The devil wears stata: Thin-ideal media’s minimal contribution to our understanding of body dissatisfaction and eating disorders. Archives of Scientific Psychology, 6(1), 70–79.

Giraldo-O'Meara, M., & Belloch, A. (2019). The Appearance Intrusions Questionnaire: A self-report questionnaire to assess the universality and intrusiveness of preoccupations about appearance defects. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 35(3), 423–435.

Fitzgerald, A., Rawdon, C., O'Rourke, C., & Dooley, B. (2019). Factor structure of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children in an Irish adolescent population. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 35(3), 346–351.

Fox, K. R., Harris, J. A., Wang, S. B., Millner, A. J., Deming, C. A., & Nock, M. K. (2020). Self-Injurious Thoughts and Behaviors Interview—Revised: Development, reliability, and validity. Psychological Assessment, 32(7), 677–689.

Franklin, J. C., Fox, K. R., Ribeiro, J. D., & Nock, M. K. (2017). Understanding the context of novel interventions for self-injurious thoughts and behaviors: A reply to Nielsen et al. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 85(8), 831–834.

Gittus, M., Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M., Brown, H. E., Richardson, B., Fassnacht, D. B., Lennard, G. R., Holland, E., & Krug, I. (2020). Are Fitbits implicated in body image concerns and disordered eating in women? Health Psychology, 39(10), 900–904.

Henrichs-Beck, C. L., & Szymanski, D. M. (2017). Gender expression, body–gender identity incongruence, thin ideal internalization, and lesbian body dissatisfaction. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 4(1), 23–33.

Hitti, S. A., Avila, M., McDonald, S. E., Romo, S., Benzel, G. K., Hernandez, R. E., Vazquez, G., Sullivan, T. N., & Corona, R. (2020). The relation between body image perceptions, parental messages, and depressive symptoms among Latinx college students. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 26(3), 412–418.

Junne, F., Zipfel, S., Wild, B., Martus, P., Giel, K., Resmark, G., Friederich, H.-C., Teufel, M., de Zwaan, M., Dinkel, A., Herpertz, S., Burgmer, M., Tagay, S., Rothermund, E., Zeeck, A., Ziser, K., Herzog, W., & Löwe, B. (2016). The relationship of body image with symptoms of depression and anxiety in patients with anorexia nervosa during outpatient psychotherapy: Results of the ANTOP study. Psychotherapy, 53(2), 141–151.

Karazsia, B. T., Murnen, S. K., & Tylka, T. L. (2017). Is body dissatisfaction changing across time? A cross-temporal meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 143(3), 293–320.

Labelle, R., Pouliot, L., & Janelle, A. (2015). A systematic review and meta-analysis of cognitive behavioural treatments for suicidal and self-harm behaviours in adolescents. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 56(4), 368–378.

Lemanak, M. T. (1998). Review of The body image workshop: An 8-step program for learning to like your looks [Review of the book The body image workshop: An 8-Step program for learning to like your looks, by T. F. Cash]. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 21(3), 300–301.

Lin, K. L., & Raval, V. V. (2020). Understanding body image and appearance management behaviors among adult women in South Korea within a sociocultural context: A review. International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, 9(2), 96–122.

Lydecker, J. A., White, M. A., & Grilo, C. M. (2017). Form and formulation: Examining the distinctiveness of body image constructs in treatment-seeking patients with binge-eating disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 85(11), 1095–1103.

MacKenzie, M. B., & Kocovski, N. L. (2010). Self-reported acceptance of social anxiety symptoms: Development and validation of the Social Anxiety—Acceptance and Action Questionnaire. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 6(3), 214–232.

Maxwell, M. A., & Cole, D. A. (2012). Development and initial validation of the Adolescent Responses to Body Dissatisfaction Measure. Psychological Assessment, 24(3), 721–737.

Morin, A. J. S., Maïano, C., Scalas, L. F., Janosz, M., & Litalien, D. (2017). Adolescents’ body image trajectories: A further test of the self-equilibrium hypothesis. Developmental Psychology, 53(8), 1501–1521.

Naragon-Gainey, K., Gallagher, M. W., & Brown, T. A. (2013). Stable “trait” variance of temperament as a predictor of the temporal course of depression and social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(3), 611–623.

Newman, S. (2020). Review of Clinical evolutions on the superego, body, and gender in psychoanalysis [Review of the book Clinical evolutions on the superego, body, and gender in psychoanalysis, by J. S. Lieberman]. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 37(1), 86–87.

Patton, S. C., Beaujean, A. A., & Benedict, H. E. (2014). Parental bonds, attachment anxiety, media susceptibility, and body dissatisfaction: A mediation model. Developmental Psychology, 50(8), 2124–2133.

Probst, T., Berger, T., Meyer, B., Späth, C., Schröder, J., Hohagen, F., Moritz, S., & Klein, J. P. (2020). Social phobia moderates the outcome in the EVIDENT study: A randomized controlled trial on an Internet-based psychological intervention for mild to moderate depressive symptoms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 88(1), 82–89.

Rosen, J. C., Reiter, J., & Orosan, P. (1995). Cognitive-behavioral body image therapy for body dysmorphic disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63(2), 263–269.

Rosenmann, A., Kaplan, D., Gaunt, R., Pinho, M., & Guy, M. (2018). Consumer masculinity ideology: Conceptualization and initial findings on men’s emerging body concerns. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 19(2), 257–272.

Ryding, F. C., & Kuss, D. J. (2020). The use of social networking sites, body image dissatisfaction, and body dysmorphic disorder: A systematic review of psychological research. Psychology of Popular Media, 9(4), 412–435.

Smith, D. M., Wang, S. B., Carter, M. L., Fox, K. R., & Hooley, J. M. (2020). Longitudinal predictors of self-injurious thoughts and behaviors in sexual and gender minority adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 129(1), 114–121.

Shanok, N. A., Reive, C., Mize, K. D., & Jones, N. A. (2020). Mindfulness meditation intervention alters neurophysiological symptoms of anxiety and depression in preadolescents. Journal of Psychophysiology, 34(3), 159–170.

Stanley, B., Currier, G. W., Chesin, M., Chaudhury, S., Jager-Hyman, S., Gafalvy, H., & Brown, G. K. (2018). Suicidal behavior and non-suicidal self-injury in emergency departments underestimated by administrative claims data. Crisis: The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention, 39(5), 318–325.

Stapleton, P., Crighton, G. J., Carter, B., & Pidgeon, A. (2017). Self-esteem and body image in females: The mediating role of self-compassion and appearance contingent self-worth. The Humanistic Psychologist, 45(3), 238–257.

Summers, B. J., & Cougle, J. R. (2018). An experimental test of the role of appearance-related safety behaviors in body dysmorphic disorder, social anxiety, and body dissatisfaction. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 127(8), 770–780.

van de Grift, T. C., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., de Vries, A. L. C., & Kreukels, B. P. C. (2018). Body image and self-esteem in disorders of sex development: A European multicenter study. Health Psychology, 37(4), 334–343.

Veldhuis, J., Alleva, J. M., Bij de Vaate, A. J. D. (N.), Keijer, M., & Konijn, E. A. (2020). Me, my selfie, and I: The relations between selfie behaviors, body image, self-objectification, and self-esteem in young women. Psychology of Popular Media, 9(1), 3–13.

Weck, F., Neng, J. M. B., Richtberg, S., Jakob, M., & Stangier, U. (2015). Cognitive therapy versus exposure therapy for hypochondriasis (health anxiety): A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83(4), 665–676.

Weinberg, A., Kotov, R., & Proudfit, G. H. (2015). Neural indicators of error processing in generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and major depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124(1), 172–185.

Wilver, N. L., & Cougle, J. R. (2019). An Internet-based controlled trial of interpretation bias modification versus progressive muscle relaxation for body dysmorphic disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 87(3), 257–269.

Wilver, N. L., Summers, B. J., & Cougle, J. R. (2020). Effects of safety behavior fading on appearance concerns and related symptoms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 88(1), 65–74.

Additional References:
Ackerman, Boris M., The Dangers of Body Dysmorphic Disorder; American Fitness, 08935238, Jul/Aug2006, Vol. 24, Issue 4

Burlew, Larry D.; Shurts, W. Matthew. Men and Body Image: Current Issues and Counseling Implications. Journal of Counseling & Development. Oct2013, Vol. 91 Issue 4, p428435. 8p. DOI: 10.1002/j.15566676.2013.00114.x.

Castle, D., Beilharz, F., Phillips, K. A., Brakoulias, V., Drummond, L. M., Hollander, E., Ioannidis, K., Pallanti, S., Chamberlain, S. R., Rossell, S. L., Veale, D., Wilhelm, S., Van Ameringen, M., Dell'Osso, B., Menchon, J. M., & Fineberg, N. A. (2021). Body dysmorphic disorder: a treatment synthesis and consensus on behalf of the International College of Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders and the Obsessive Compulsive and Related Disorders Network of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology. International clinical psychopharmacology, 36(2), 61-63.

Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. (2016). 2014 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: DSM-5 Changes: Implications for Child Serious Emotional Disturbance (unpublished internal documentation). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Rockville, MD, 52-54.

Conroy, M., Menard, W., FlemingIves, K., Modha, P., Cerullo, H., and Phillips, K. A. (2008). Prevalence and clinical characteristics of body dysmorphic disorder in an adult inpatient setting. Gen Hosp Psychiatry, 30(1). p. 6772. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2007.09.004

Crerand, C. E., Phillips, K. A., Mendard, W., and Fay, C. (2005). Nonpsychiatric Medical Treatment of Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Psychosomatics, 46(6). p. 549555.

Danilov, Deana; Diekhoff, George M.; Vandehey, Michael A. A Multidimensional Scaling Analysis of Male Body Perception in Men With Muscle Dysmorphia: "The Adonis Complex". International Journal of Men's Health. Summer2013, Vol. 12 Issue 2, p83105. 23p. 1 Diagram, 6 Charts. DOI: 10.3149/jmh.1202.83

Dubenetzky, Salome. Differential Diagnosis of Anxiety Disorders. Annals of Psychotherapy & Integrative Health. Summer2013, Vol. 16 Issue 2, p4046. 7p. 2 Color Photographs, 3 Illustrations.

Eggers, Christian, Liebers, Verena; Through a Glass, Darkly; Scientific American Mind, 15552284, 2007, Vol. 18, Issue 2

Freedman, Rita Ph.D.; "Body Love:  Learning to Like our Looks and Ourselves, a Practical Guide for Women"; Harper & Row , Publishers; New York, NY; 1990.

Frías, Á., Palma, C., Farriols, N., & González, L. (2015). Comorbidity between obsessive-compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder: prevalence, explanatory theories, and clinical characterization. Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment, 11, 2240–2244.

Gifford, Elizabeth V.; Tavakoli, Sara; Wang, Ruey; Hagedorn, Hildi J.; HamlettBerry, Kim W. Tobacco dependence diagnosis and treatment in Veterans Health Administration residential substance use disorder treatment programs. Addiction. Jun2013, Vol. 108 Issue 6, p11271135. 9p. 4 Charts. DOI: 10.1111/add.12105.

Guindon, Mary H.; Toward Accountability in the Use of the SelfEsteem Construct; Journal of Counseling & Development, 07489633, Spring2002, Vol. 80, Issue 2

Holmes, Kathryn. Battling Body Dysmorphia. Dance Spirit. Mar2013, Vol. 17 Issue 3, p3234. 2p.

Howard, Theresa Ruth; Learn to Love Your Body; Dance Magazine, October 2009, Vol 83 Issue 10, p48

Jackson, Catherine. Whose body is it anyway? Therapy Today. Jul2013, Vol. 24 Issue 6, p1014. 5p.

John, Don St.; Imagined Ugliness: Body Dysmorphic Disorder; Physician Assistant, 87507544, Jul2003, Vol. 27, Issue 7

Karasu, Sylvia R. PsychotherapyLite: Obesity and the Role of the Mental Health Practitioner. American Journal of Psychotherapy. 2013, Vol. 67 Issue 1, p322. 20p

Koerner, Naomi; Antony, Martin; Young, Lisa; McCabe, Randi. Changes in Beliefs about the Social Competence of Self and Others Following Group CognitiveBehavioral Treatment. Cognitive Therapy & Research. Apr2013, Vol. 37 Issue 2, p256265. 10p. 3 Charts. DOI: 10.1007/s1060801294725.

Kolk, Bessel; Najavits, Lisa M. Interview: What is PTSD Really? Surprises, Twists of History, and the Politics of Diagnosis and Treatment. Journal of Clinical Psychology. May2013, Vol. 69 Issue 5, p516522. 7p. DOI: 10.1002/jclp.21992.

Landes, Sara J. The Case: Treating Jared Through Dialectical Behavior Therapy. Journal of Clinical Psychology. May2013, Vol. 69 Issue 5, p488489. 2p. DOI: 10.1002/jclp.21984.

Mind for better mental health. (2016). Understanding body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). National Association for Mental Health.

Muehlenkamp, J.J., Saris–Baglama, R.N.; Self–Objectification and its Psychological Outcomes for College Women. By; Psychology of Women Quarterly, 03616843, Winter2002, Vol. 26, Issue 4

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Phillips, Katharine A. M.D.; "The Broken Mirror:  Understanding and Treating Body Dysmorphic Disorder"; Oxford University Press; New York, NY; 2005

Phillips, Katharine A., Body dysmorphic disorder: Diagnostic controversies and treatment challenges; Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 00259284, Winter2000, Vol. 64, Issue 1

Phillips, K. A. (2004). Body dysmorphic disorder: recognizing and treating imagined ugliness. World Psychiatry, 1(3). p. 1217.

Pimenta, Adriano Marçal; SánchezVillegas, Almudena; BesRastrollo, Maira; López, Celeste Nicole; MartínezGonzález, Miguel Ángel; Relationship between body image disturbance and incidence of depression: the SUN prospective cohort; BMC Public Health, 2009, Vol 9, p1

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Veale, D. (2004). Body dysmorphic disorder. Postgrad Med j, 80. p. 6771. doi: 10.1136/pmj.2003.015289

Weiss, Fran, Group Psychotherapy with Obese DisorderedEating Adults with BodyImage Disturbances: An Integrated Model, American Journal of Psychotherapy, 00029564, 2004, Vol. 58, Issue 3